What is the ruling on secret nikah in Islam?

A nikah technically requires a wali, two witnesses, and clear consent from both parties, and many scholars say these basic conditions can be enough for validity even without public announcement. However, most scholars strongly discourage keeping a marriage completely secret from both families, because the Prophet ﷺ encouraged openly announcing nikah, and secrecy often opens the door to disputes over paternity, inheritance, and even denial of the marriage itself later on. Some scholars from the Maliki school go further, considering a nikah invalid if witnesses were specifically instructed to keep it hidden, since that secrecy resembles the very thing Islam tried to prevent through public marriage. A relationship built on concealment also tends to carry emotional strain, since one or both spouses often live with constant anxiety about being discovered. What starts as a private decision frequently turns into a much bigger problem when the truth eventually comes out. Allah knows best.